Question

In this part of the Python programming tutorial, we will work with string data in more detail.

Strings are one of the most important data types in computer languages. That is why we dedicate a whole chapter to working with strings in Python.

Strings are derived data types. A string in Python is a sequence of characters. Strings are immutable. This means that once defined, they cannot be changed. Many Python methods modify strings. For example the replace() method. They do not modify the original string. They create a copy of a string, which they modify and return to the caller.

String literals

In Python programming language, strings can be created with single quotes, double quotes or triple quotes.

Strings in Python can be created using single quotes, double quotes and triple quotes. When we use triple quotes, strings can span several lines without using the escape character.

#!/usr/bin/python

# strings.py

a = "proximity alert"
b = 'evacuation'
c = """
requiem 
for
a 
tower
"""

print a
print b
print c

In our example we assign three string literals to a , b , and c variables. And we print them to the console.

$ ./strings.py 
proximity alert
evacuation

requiem 
for 
a 
tower

If we want to create Unicode strings, we add a u or U character at the beginning of the text.

#!/usr/bin/python

# unicode.py

text = u'\u041b\u0435\u0432 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\
\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0422\u043e\u043b\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439: \n\
\u0410\u043d\u043d\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430'

print text

In our example, we print Leo Tolstoy: Anna Karenina in azbuka.

$ ./unicode.py 
Лев Николаевич Толстой: 
Анна Каренина

Using quotes

Strings in Python are delimited by single or double quote characters. What if we wanted to display quotes, for example in a direct speech? There are two basic ways to do this.

#!/usr/bin/python

# quotes.py

print "There are many stars." 
print "He said, \"Which one is your favourite?\""

print 'There are many stars.'
print 'He said, "Which one is your favourite?"'

We use the \ character to escape additional quotes. Normally the double quote character is used to delimit a string literal. However, when escaped, the original meaning is suppressed. It appears as a normal character and can be used within a string literal. The second way to use quotes within quotes is to mix single and double quotes.

$ ./quotes.py
There are many stars.
He said, "Which one is your favourite?"
There are many stars.
He said, "Which one is your favourite?"

Output.

The length of a string

The len() method calculates the number of characters in a string. The white characters are also counted.

#!/usr/bin/python

# length.py

s1 = "Eagle"
s2 = "Eagle\n"
s3 = "Eagle  "

print len(s1)
print len(s2)
print len(s3)

We compute the length of three strings.

s1 = "Eagle"
s2 = "Eagle\n"
s3 = "Eagle  "

Three strings are defined. The second string has a new line character at its end. The third has two space characters.

print len(s1)

We print the number of characters to the console.

$ ./length.py
5
6
7

From the output we can see that the white spaces (new line character and space characters in our case) are counted too.

Stripping white characters

In string processing, we might often end up with a string that has white characters at the beginning or at the end of a string. The term white spaces, characters refers to invisible characters like new line, tab, space or other control characters. We have the strip() , lstrip() and rstrip() methods to remove these characters.

#!/usr/bin/python

# strippig.py

s = " Eagle  "

s2 = s.rstrip()
s3 = s.lstrip()
s4 = s.strip()

print s, len(s)
print s2, len(s2)
print s3, len(s3)
print s4, len(s4)

We apply the stripping methods on a string word which has three white spaces. One space at the start and two spaces at the end. Note that these methods remove any number of white spaces, not just one.

s2 = s.rstrip()

The rstrip() method returns a string with the trailing white space characters removed.

s3 = s.lstrip()

The lstrip() method returns a string with the leading white space characters removed.

s4 = s.strip()

The strip() method returns a copy of the string with the leading and trailing characters removed.

$ ./stripping.py
 Eagle   8
 Eagle 6
Eagle   7
Eagle 5

Output of the stripping.py example. Remember that when we print output to the terminal, one space character is added between the string and the number. This happens when we delimit output by a comma character for the print keyword.

Escape sequences

When we work with strings, we can use escape sequences. The escape sequences are special characters have a specific purpose, when used within a string.

print "   bbb\raaa" # prints aaabbb

The carriage return \r is a control character for end of line return to beginning of line.

#!/usr/bin/python

# strophe.py

print "Incompatible, it don't matter though\n'cos someone's bound to hear my cry"
print "Speak out if you do\nYou're not easy to find"

The new line is a control character, which begins a new line of text.

$ ./strophe.py 
Incompatible, it don't matter though
'cos someone's bound to hear my cry
Speak out if you do
You're not easy to find

Next we examine the backspace control character.

print "Python\b\b\booo" # prints Pytooo

The backspace control character \b moves the cursor one character back. In our case, we use three backspace characters to delete three letters and replace them with three o characters.

print "Towering\tinferno" # prints Towering    inferno

The horizontal tab puts a space between text.

"Johnie's dog"
'Johnie\'s dog'

Single and double quotes can be nested. Or in case we use only single quotes, we can use the backslash to escape the default meaning of a single quote.

If we prepend an r to the string, we get a raw string. The escape sequences are not interpreted.

#!/usr/bin/python

# raw.py

print r"Another world\n"

$ ./raw.py 
Another world\n

We get the string with the new line character included.

Comparing strings

Comparing strings is a common job in programming. We can compare two strings with a == operator. We can check the opposite with the non-equality != operator. The operators return a boolean True or False.

#!/usr/bin/python

print "12" == "12"
print "17" == "9"
print "aa" == "ab"

print "abc" != "bce"
print "efg" != "efg"

In this code example, we compare some strings.

print "12" == "12"

These two strings are equal, so the line returns True.

print "aa" == "ab"

The first two characters of both strings are equal. Next the following characters are compared. They are different so the line returns False.

print "abc" != "bce"

Since the two strings are different, the line returns True.

$ ./comparing.py
True
False
False
True
False

Output.

Accessing string elements

It is possible to access string elements in Python.

#!/usr/bin/python

# elements.py

s = "Eagle"

print s[0]
print s[4]
print s[-1]
print s[-2]

print "****************"

print s[0:4]
print s[1:3]
print s[:]

An index operation is used to get elements of a string.

print s[0]
print s[4]

The first line prints the first character. The second line prints the fifth character. The indexes start from zero.

print s[-1]
print s[-2]

When the index is negative, we retrieve elements from the end of the string. In this case, we print the last and last but one characters.

print s[0:4]

Ranges of characters can be accessed too. This line prints a range of characters starting from the first and ending with the fourth character.

print s[:]

This line prints all the characters from the string.

$ ./elements.py
E
e
e
l
****************
Eagl
ag
Eagle

Output.

A for loop can be used to traverse all characters of a string.

#!/usr/bin/python

s = "ZetCode"

for i in s:
  print i,

The script prints all the characters of a given string to the console.

$ ./traverse.py
Z e t C o d e

Output.

Finding substrings

The find() , rfind() , index() and rindex() methods are used to find substrings in a string. They return the index of the first occurrence of the substring. The find() and index() methods search from the beginning of the string. The rfind() and rindex() search backwards.

The difference between the find() and index() methods is that when the substring is not found, the former returns -1. The latter raises a ValueError exception.

find(str, beg=0, end=len(string))
rfind(str, beg=0, end=len(string))
index(str, beg=0, end=len(string))
rindex(str, beg=0, end=len(string))

The str is the substring to be searched for. The beg parameter is the starting index, by default it is 0. The end parameter is the ending index. It is by default equal to the length of the string.

#!/usr/bin/python

a = "I saw a wolf in the forest. A lone wolf."

print a.find("wolf")
print a.find("wolf", 10, 20)
print a.find("wolf", 15)

print a.rfind("wolf")

We have a simple sentence. We try to find the index of a substring in the sentence.

print a.find("wolf")

Finds the first occurrence of the substring 'wolf' in the sentence. The line prints 8.

print a.find("wolf", 10, 20)

This line tries to find a 'wolf' substring. It starts from the 10th character and searches for the next 20 characters. There is no such substring is this range and therefore the line prints -1. As for not found.

print a.find("wolf", 15)

Here we search for a substring from the 15th character until the end of the string. We find the second occurrence of the substring. The line prints 35.

print a.rfind("wolf")

The rfind() looks for a substring from the end. It finds the second occurrence of the 'wolf' substring. The line prints 35.

$ ./finding.py
8
-1
35
35

Output.

In the second example, we will use the index() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

a = "I saw a wolf in the forest. A lone wolf."

print a.index("wolf")
print a.rindex("wolf")

try:
  print a.rindex("fox")
except ValueError, e:
  print "Could not find substring"

As we have already mentioned, the difference between these and the previous ones is how they deal with not finding substrings.

print a.index("wolf")
print a.rindex("wolf")

These lines find the first occurrence of the 'wolf' substring from the beginning and from the end.

try:
  print a.rindex("fox")
except ValueError, e:
  print "Could not find substring"

When the substring is not found, the rindex() method raises a ValueError exception.

$ ./finding2.py
8
35
Could not find substring

Output of the example.

Basic operations

In the next example, we will show string multiplication and concatenation.

#!/usr/bin/python

# strings2.py

print "eagle " * 5

print "eagle " "falcon"

print "eagle " + "and " + "falcon"

The * operator repeates the string n times. In our case five times. Two string literals next to each other are automatically concatenated. We can also use the + operator to explicitly concatenate the strings.

$ ./strings2.py 
eagle eagle eagle eagle eagle 
eagle falcon
eagle and falcon

This is the output of strings.py script.

We can use the len() function to calculate the length of the string in characters.

#!/usr/bin/python

# eagle.py

var = 'eagle'

print var, "has", len(var), "characters"

In the example, we compute thr number of characters in a string variable.

$ ./eagle.py 
eagle has 5 characters

Some programming languages enable implicit addition of strings and numbers. In Python language, this is not possible. We must explicitly convert values.

#!/usr/bin/python

# strnum.py

print int("12") + 12
print "There are " + str(22) + " oranges."
print float('22.33') + 22.55

We use a built-in int() function to convert a string to integer. And there is also a built-in str() function to convert a number to a string. And we use the float() function to convert a string to a floating point number.

Replacing strings

The replace() method replaces substrings in a string with other substrings. Since strings in Python are immutable, a new string is built with values replaced.

replace(old, new [, max])

By default, it replaces all occurrences of a substring. The method takes a third argument which limits the replacements to a certain number.

#!/usr/bin/python

a = "I saw a wolf in the forest. A lonely wolf."

b = a.replace("wolf", "fox")
print b

c = a.replace("wolf", "fox", 1)
print c

We have a sentence where we replace 'wolf' substring with a 'fox' substring.

b = a.replace("wolf", "fox")

This line replaces all occurrences of the 'wolf' substring with 'fox' substring.

c = a.replace("wolf", "fox", 1)

Here we replace only the first occurrence.

$ ./replacing.py
I saw a fox in the forest. A lonely fox.
I saw a fox in the forest. A lonely wolf.

Output.

Splitting, joining strings

A string can be split with the split() or the rsplit() method. They return a list of strings which were cut from the string using a separator. The optional second parameter is the maximum splits allowed.

#!/usr/bin/python

nums = "1,5,6,8,2,3,1,9"

k = nums.split(",")
print k

l = nums.split(",", 5)
print l

m = nums.rsplit(",", 3)
print m

We have a comma-delimited string. We cut the string into parts.

k = nums.split(",")

We split the string into 8 parts using a comma as a separator. The method returns a list of 8 strings.

l = nums.split(",", 5)

Here we split the string into 6 parts. Five substrings split using the commna separator and the remainder of the string.

m = nums.rsplit(",", 3)

Here we split the string into four parts. This time the splitting goes from the right.

$ ./splitting.py
['1', '5', '6', '8', '2', '3', '1', '9']
['1', '5', '6', '8', '2', '3,1,9']
['1,5,6,8,2', '3', '1', '9']

Strings can be joined with the join() string. It returns a string concatenated from the strings passed as a parameter. The separator between elements is the string providing this method.

#!/usr/bin/python

nums = "1,5,6,8,2,3,1,9"

n = nums.split(",")
print n

m = ':'.join(n)
print m

First we split a string into a list of strings. Then we join the strings into one string with the elements being separated by the provided character.

m = ':'.join(n)

The join() method creates one string from a list of strings. The elements are separated by the : character.

$ ./splitjoin.py
['1', '5', '6', '8', '2', '3', '1', '9']
1:5:6:8:2:3:1:9

Output.

Another method which can be used for splitting strings is partition() . It will split the string at the first occurrence of the separator and return a 3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part after the separator.

#!/usr/bin/python

s = "1 + 2 + 3 = 6"

a = s.partition("=")

print a

We use the partition() method in this example.

a = s.partition("=")

This will cut the string into three parts. One before the = character, the separator and the right side after the separator.

$ ./partition.py
('1 + 2 + 3 ', '=', ' 6')

Working with case

Python has four string methods to work with the case of the strings. These methods return a new modified string.

#!/usr/bin/python

# convert.py

a = "ZetCode"

print a.upper()
print a.lower()
print a.swapcase()
print a.title() 

We have a string word on which we will demonstrate the four methods.

print a.upper()

The upper() method returns a copy of the string where all characters are converted to uppercase.

print a.lower()

Here we get a copy of the string in lowercase letters.

print a.swapcase()

The swapcase() method swaps the case of the letters. Lowercase characters will be uppercase and vice versa.

print a.title() 

The title() method returns a copy of the string, where the first character is in uppercase and the remaining characters are in lowercase.

$ ./convert.py
ZETCODE
zetcode
zETcODE
Zetcode

Output.

Operations on strings

There are several useful built-in functions that can be used for working with string.

#!/usr/bin/python

# letters.py

sentence = "There are 22 apples"

alphas = 0
digits = 0
spaces = 0

for i in sentence:
   if i.isalpha():
    alphas += 1
   if i.isdigit():
    digits += 1
   if i.isspace():
    spaces += 1

print "There are", len(sentence), "characters"
print "There are", alphas, "alphabetic characters"
print "There are", digits, "digits"
print "There are", spaces, "spaces"

In our example, we have a string sentence. We calculate the absolute number of characters, number of alphabetic characters, digits and spaces in the sentence. To do this, we use functions: len() , isalpha() , isdigit() and isspace() .

$ ./letters.py 
There are 19 characters
There are 14 alphabetic characters
There are 2 digits
There are 3 spaces

In the next example, we will print results of football matches.

#!/usr/bin/python

# teams.py

print "Ajax Amsterdam" " - " + "Inter Milano " "2:3"
print "Real Madridi" " - " "AC Milano " "3:3"
print "Dortmund" " - " "Sparta Praha " "2:1"

We already know that adjacent strings are concatenated.

$ ./teams1.py 
Ajax Amsterdam - Inter Milano 2:3
Real Madridi - AC Milano 3:3
Dortmund - Sparta Praha 2:1

The output does not look very good. We will change it so that it looks better.

#!/usr/bin/python

# teams.py

teams = { 
    0: ("Ajax Amsterdam", "Inter Milano"),
    1: ("Real Madrid", "AC Milano"),
    2: ("Dortmund", "Sparta Praha")
}

results = ("2:3", "3:3", "2:1")


for i in teams:
   print teams[i][0].ljust(16) + "-".ljust(5) + \
     teams[i][1].ljust(16) + results[i].ljust(3)

The ljust() method returns a left justified string, the rjust() method returns a right justified string. If the string is smaller than the width that we provided, it is filled with spaces.

$ ./teams2.py 
Ajax Amsterdam  -  Inter Milano  2:3
Real Madrid   -  AC Milano     3:3
Dortmund    -  Sparta Praha  2:1

Now the output looks better.

String formatting

String formatting or string interpolation is dynamic putting of various values into a string. It is a very handy feature of the Python programming language. To do string interpolation, we use the % operator.

#!/usr/bin/python

# oranges.py

print 'There are %d oranges in the basket' % 32

We use the %d formatting specifier. The d character says, we are expecting an integer. After the string, we put a modulo operator and an argument. In this case an integer value.

$ ./oranges.py 
There are 32 oranges in the basket

If we interpolate more values, we put the arguments into a tuple.

#!/usr/bin/python

# fruits.py

print 'There are %d oranges and %d apples in the basket' % (12, 23)

$ ./fruits.py 
There are 12 oranges and 23 apples in the basket

In the next example, we will interpolate a float and a string value.

#!/usr/bin/python

# height.py

print 'Height: %f %s' % (172.3, 'cm')

The formatting specifier for a float value is %f and for a string %s .

$ ./height.py 
Height: 172.300000 cm

We might not like the fact that the number in the previous example has 6 decimal places by default. We can control the number of the decimal places in the formatting specifier.

#!/usr/bin/python

# height2.py

print 'Height: %.1f %s' % (172.3, 'cm')

The decimal point followed by an integer controls the number of decimal places. In our case, the number will have exactly one decimal place.

$ ./height2.py 
Height: 172.3 cm

The following example shows other formatting options.

#!/usr/bin/python

# various.py

# hexadecimal
print "%x" % 300
print "%#x" % 300

# octal
print "%o" % 300

# scientific
print "%e" % 300000

The first two interpolations work with hexadecimal numbers. The x character will format the number in hexadecimal notation. The # character will add 0x to the hexadecimal number. The o character shows the number in octal format. The e character will show the number in scientific format.

$ ./various.py 
12c
0x12c
454
3.000000e+05

The next example will print three columns of numbers.

#!/usr/bin/python

# columns1.py

for x in range(1,11):
  print '%d %d %d' % (x, x*x, x*x*x)

The numbers are left justified and the output is not optimal.

$ ./columns1.py 
1 1 1
2 4 8
3 9 27
4 16 64
5 25 125
6 36 216
7 49 343
8 64 512
9 81 729
10 100 1000

To correct this, we use the width specifier. The width specifier defines the minimal width of the object. If the object is smaller than the width, it is filled with spaces.

#!/usr/bin/python

# spaces.py

for x in range(1,11):
  print '%2d %3d %4d' % (x, x*x, x*x*x)

Now the output looks OK. Value 2 makes the first column to be 2 charactes wide.

$ ./columns2.py 
 1   1  1
 2   4  8
 3   9   27
 4  16   64
 5  25  125
 6  36  216
 7  49  343
 8  64  512
 9  81  729
10 100 1000

This chapter was about string data type in Python.